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Civil War History and Cold War History

The earliest known inhabitants of North America, ancestors of the Native Americans, or American Indians, came from Asia, traveling over the Bering Strait when it was a land bridge some 25,000 years ago.

After explorer Christopher Columbus, who was sponsored by Spain, came upon this New World in 1492, Spanish, French, and British explorers and colonists arrived. The first British settlement was established at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. In 1620, the pilgrims, early settlers from England, landed at Plymouth Rock, Massachusetts. With the help of American Indians, they survived the harsh winters and difficult living conditions. By 1775, there were thirteen British colonies. The colonists were often unhappy with how the British government treated them, especially in regard to taxation. On April 19, 1775, the Revolutionary War began in Massachusetts, with the Battles of Lexington and Concord. On July 4, 1776, the thirteen colonies declared themselves independent. Under the leadership of General George Washington, they defeated the British army in 1781. A constitution was ratified by the newly formed Congress in 1788, and, in 1789, Washington was elected America's first president.

Westward Ho!

As the country expanded through wars and treaties, pioneers loaded their wagons and headed west. They often clashed with Indians who were unwilling to give up their lands. In 1803, the United States doubled in size with the purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France. Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark mapped the unexplored continent during a two year expedition that took them as far as the Pacific Ocean. America's victory in the Mexican War in 1848 forced Mexico to hand over lands from Texas to the Pacific, including California.

Civil War

By the mid 1800s, the states of the northeast were industrialized, while the states of the southeast were agricultural and dependent on slave labor. Slaves were brought from Africa to work on large plantations, where they were often held captive and cruelly mistreated. In 1861, antagonism between northern and southern states over state rights erupted into civil war. The war ended in 1865, with victory for the northern states. Slavery was abolished and the nation preserved. More American lives were lost in the Civil War, however, than in any other war in the American history. The country's rapid industrialization in the mid to late 1800s was fueled by a constant flow of immigrants. Transportation of goods and people was made easier with the completion of the first transcontinental railroad in 1869. Shrewd businessmen made enormous fortunes developing new industries. John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil Company, and Andrew Carnegie was at the forefront of the American steel industry.

A World Power

The United States was victorious in the Spanish American War and, in 1898, emerged with its first overseas territories: Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. When World War I broke out, Americans wanted to remain neutral at first, but the country entered the conflict in 1917. After the war, the United States enjoyed a decade of prosperity known as the "Roaring Twenties." It ended in 1929 with the stock market crash, followed by The Great Depression, a slump in economies worldwide. Increased production for World War II helped stimulate the American economy. The United States entered the war in 1941 and helped defeat Nazi Germany in Europe and Japan in Asia. Because of its size and strength, the United States became a world power with global responsibilities.

The Cold War and Beyond

After the war, U.S. relations with its former ally, the communist Soviet Union, were strained. Unable to reconcile their different systems of government, the two countries engaged in a Cold War, a period of nonviolent hostility. Weapons were stockpiled, and each side was afraid the other would begin a nuclear war. Determined to curb the spread of communism, the United States sent troops to Korea in 1950 and Vietnam in 1965. The Korean War lasted three years and resulted in the division of the country into North Korea and South Korea. The Vietnam War lasted until 1975. It ended two years after U.S. troops withdrew and the communists took over the country. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought the Cold War to an end. Since then, the United States and the countries of Eastern Europe have begun a new era of friendly cultural, economic, and diplomatic exchange. Today, the United States plays an influential role in the global economy and the international community. The U.S. government is able to accomplish many of its humanitarian and economic goals by negotiating with world leaders and through persuasive techniques, such as trade sanctions against countries that violate American principles of freedom and justice.

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)

The son of a wealthy Virginian farmer, Thomas Jefferson attended William and Mary College in 1760. He studied law and entered politics. In his illustrious career, he served as governor of Virginia, U.S. minister to France, secretary of state, vice president, and two terms as the third president of the United States. As president, Jefferson negotiated the purchase of the Louisiana Territory in 1803 from France, doubling the size of the United States. This brilliant man was also an accomplished architect, inventor, naturalist, and linguist. Before he died, however, he asked to be remembered for founding the University of Virginia and for writing the Declaration of Independence and the statute of Virginia for religious freedom.

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865)

Born in a log cabin in Kentucky, Abraham Lincoln later moved with his family to Illinois. He helped his father work the land and taught himself to read and write. In 1836, he became a lawyer and earned the nickname "Honest Abe" because of his honesty and integrity. Lincoln was elected president in 1860. One year later, the Civil War began. In 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing slaves in the Confederate states. Under Lincoln's leadership, the Union prevailed. Five days after the war ended, however, he was assassinated. Lincoln is also remembered for his eloquent speeches, among them the Gettysburg Address at the dedication of the cemetery in Pennsylvania where a crucial battle of the Civil War was fought.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902)

Elizabeth Cady Stanton learned about the discriminatory laws against women while studying in her father's law office. In 1848, she and Lucretia Mott organized the first women's rights convention at Seneca Falls, New York. In 1850, she joined forces with Susan B. Anthony to publish a newspaper promoting women's causes. Stanton was an advocate of more liberal divorce laws, less restrictive clothing for women, co education, and the right of married women to control their property. When she married in 1840, she insisted on omitting the word obey from her marriage vows.

Extract from "Countries Of The World - USA". Written by Elizabeth Berg. Times Editions Pty Ltd 1999.

The Civil War had profound and lasting repercussions on the United States. No change was more dramatic than the death of the defining institution of the defeated Confederacy—slavery—which was abolished by constitutional amendment eight months after Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox in April 1865. Other significant changes took longer to materialize. For example, the military demands of war propelled advances in technology that laid the foundation for an explosion of industrial development in the victorious North. Still other transformations stemmed from wartime efforts by Congress to bind the far-flung nation together. Both the 1862 Homestead Act and the decision the same year to sponsor construction of a transcontinental railroad helped spur postwar westward migration—a development that transformed the western regions of the country. The changes America underwent during the three decades following the war’s end did not proceed without controversies and debates, as the following selection of opposing viewpoints illustrates. Some of the issues presented here were of special concern to specific regions of the country. Americans were frequently at odds over matters pertaining to the reconstruction of the South, the industrialization of the North, and the settlement of the West. Other issues, such as labor/management relations and immigration, were national in scope. But all of these disagreements took place in the context of a nation that was growing rapidly in population, wealth, and power.
THE SOUTH AND RECONSTRUCTION Reconstruction (1865–1877) was dominated by two fundamental questions. One question concerned the manner in which the former Confederate states should be reintegrated into the Union. At issue was whether they should be permitted to regain their status as states quickly, as President Abraham Lincoln proposed before his April 1865 assassination, or whether they should be held as conquered provinces, as Radical Republicans in Congress argued. Closely related to this dilemma was a second question: How should the 4 million former slaves be reintegrated into what was no longer a slave society? Should they be granted the right to vote and otherwise participate in the political process? Or should their political and social rights be restricted, as many whites in both the North and the South believed? Radical Republicans insisted on federal control of Confederate states to ensure that the ex-slaves would soon be given political equality, economic opportunity, and full civil rights. Opponents of the Radical Republicans generally opposed federal control of state governments, in large part because they wanted to pass state laws that would limit the rights and powers of blacks (as many Southern states did after the Civil War by enacting special ‘‘Black Codes’’). The Radical Republicans achieved mixed success in their goals. They passed federal laws that were designed to achieve a measure of integration throughout the South. Through the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, respectively, black Americans were granted citizenship and black men received the right to vote. But by 1877 all federal troops had been withdrawn from the former Confederate states, all eleven states had been readmitted to the Union, and political leadership in the South had returned to conservative whites. Three-quarters of the southern black population became sharecroppers, many of whom were so poor that their material welfare was not much better than it had been under slavery. During the 1880s southern writers and political leaders hailed the rise of a ‘‘New South’’ based on industrial renaissance and postwar reconciliation. But critics, both white and black, argued that whether the issue was race relations or economic development, the region still had a long way to go.

Sun 05 Feb 2012 08:23:16 AM BDT